KIKOTI EDUCATION CENTRE
(EDUCATION FOR LIFE)
ILULA-MADIZINI (MAJENGO YA KATORIKI)
2016/2017
STUDENT NAME: KERRY MSOLAH
Biology comes from two Greek words
1. Bios= life
2. logos= study or knowledge.
Biology is the scientific study of living things. Today the scope of biology encompass living things and their interaction with non-living things in their physical environment.
Main branches of biology.
These two make main branches of biology, namely:
1. Zoology: scientific study of animals.
2. Botany: scientific study of plants.
Other branches of biology (Also check Bios notes pg. 1-2)
i) Bacteriology is the scientific study of bacteria.
ii) Mycology is the scientific study of fungi.
iii) Microbiology is the scientific study of micro-organisms.
iv) Cytology is the scientific study of the structure and function of cells.
v) Dermatology is the medical study of the skin and its diseases.
vi) Genetics is the study of inheritance and variations in inheritance.
vii) Hydrobiology is the study of aquatic life forms
viii) Ichthyology is the study of fish.
ix) Etiology (Aetiology) is the study of causes of diseases.
x) Ethology is the study of animal behaviour.
xi) Entomology is the study of insects.
xii) Virology is the scientific study of virus.
xiii) Taxonomy is the scientific study of classification.
xiv) Anatomy is the scientific study of structure of organisms.
xv) Protozoology is the scientific study of protozoa.
xvi) Physiology is the study of how the bodies of organisms and their various parts functions.
xvii) Pharmacology is the study of properties of drugs and their effects on living organisms.
Basic Biological Concepts.
Life is the state of being alive or existing. That is the ability to grow and reproduce. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
Cell, is the basic unit of life. A cell is composed of nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
Organism (Living things). Is an individual living system, such as animal, plant or micro-organisms (bacteria) that are capable of reproduction, growth and maintenance of worn out tissues.
Non-living thing is anything that does not exist or is dead.
Characteristics of Living Things.
1. Nutrition or feeding
2. Movement and locomotion.
3. Growth and development.
4. Reproduction.
5. Sensitivity and Irritability or Response.
6. Respiration.
7. Gaseous exchange.
8. Excretion.
*Types (classification) of waste based on recycling
1. Recycled wastes: These are wastes that can be used to manufacture new products, e.g.: paper, beverage cans, beer bottles, plastic bags, used oils, glass bottles, building materials.
2. Non-recycled waste: These are wastes that cannot be used to manufacture new products: paper soiled during cleaning and cotton waste.
Type (classification) of waste based on its danger.
1. Hazardous waste.
i. Ignitability or reactivity: These are common hazardous properties
2. Non-hazardous waste: Those do not pose immediate threat to human health and environment, e.g.: household garbage.
9. Heredity.
10. Death.
1. Nutrition (Feeding). All living things take in and assimilate materials(food) for growth, maintenance and repair of worn out tissues.
Mode of Feeding,
a) Autotrophic Nutrition. Where green plants (and some micro-organisms) make their own food from inorganic substances by the process of photosynthesis.
b) Heterotrophic Nutrition, where by organisms (animals) feed on ready made organic matter (other organisms)
i) Herbivores are animals that feed on plants e.g. cows, giraffes
ii) Omnivores are animals that feed on other animals as well as plants, e.g. human being and pig.
iii) Carnivores, are animals that eat other animals, ie. Leopard and lion.
c) Saprophytic nutrition: feed on dead decay matter (i.e.: remains or products of other animals.)
2. Movement and locomotion:
Movement is the act of changing position or posture. It can involve the whole body or part e.g. plants move by growing: roots towards source of water; stem towards light.
Locomotion: is the movement of the whole body: change in position.
Why do organisms move?
i. In search of food
ii) Search of a mate.
iii) Away from negative stimuli e.g. predators, chemicals, fire, secure protection.
iv) Towards positive stimuli e.g. light, gravity, chemicals & water.
3. Growth and development:-from within
Growth: Irreversible increase in size and mass.
Development: irreversible change in the complexity and structure of living things:(e.g. ability to reproduce when you reach puberty or ability to speak.)
4. Reproduction: is the ability to give rise to the new individual of the same kind(species).
i) Sexual reproduction: involves mating of male and female organisms e.g. human, maize.
ii) Asexual reproduction: one parent only e.g. by splitting (amoeba) or vegetative propagation (sugar cane, banana.).
5. Sensitivity and Irritability (response).
Sensitivity: ability to detect changes in the surroundings using sense organs in animals( eyes, skim, ears, nose, tongue) and hormones in plants.
Irritability (response): ability to react to changes in the immediate environment e.g. temperature, humidity, light, pressure and chemicals.
6. Respiration: is the process by which food substances are chemically broken down in all living cells to release energy, carbon dioxide and water. The energy is used for:
i) Muscular contraction.
ii) Conduction of nerve impulse (sensitivity)
iii) Growth and development.
iv) Repair of worn out tissues.
v) Secretion of enzymes.
vi) Function of body organs (kidney, heart, liver, brain etc.)
7. Gaseous exchange: process whereby respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are passed across the respiratory surfaces.
8. Excretion: process by which excess waste and harmful materials resulting from body metabolisms are eliminated from the body.
9. Heredity: all living things have a genetic system that is based on the replication of nucleic acid (DNA). A genetic system is the only characteristics which defines life properlyall living things have a genetic system that is based on the replication of nucleic acid (DNA). A genetic system is the only characteristics which defines life properly. .
Importance of studying Biology.
1. To understand one self better, as we are part of the living world.
2. To solve environmental problems e.g. shortage of food, poor healthy services, misuse of environmental resources (forests, water, soil, wildlife).
3. To have suitable development & conserve our environment.
4. To enter into carrier e.g. medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, public health, genetic engineering.
5. To know causative agents, symptoms, transmission, prevention of infectious diseases and their treatment.
6. Living organisms provide us with basic needs e.g. food, clothing & shelter.
7. Answers for fundamental questions: when did life begin?
8. To acquire scientific skills e.g. planning, observing, experimenting, classifying, measuring, analyzing data, evaluation & conclusion which are very useful in daily life.
Stages of scientific investigation in Biology(scientific processes or Procedures)
1. Observation and Problem identification.
2. Forming hypothesis.
3. Experimentation & Investigation.
4. Observation & data collection.
5. Interpretation of data.
6. Conclusion: forming theory.
7. Classification and Application.
1. Observation and Problem identification.
*Observation: Is examining the object or event closely using our sense organs, i.e. eye, ear, skin and tongue. The tongue is rarely used because some chemicals are dangerous.
Asking questions: In all branches of science, the common practice for students is asking questions, listening and discussing e.g. what, how, why, when, who?
2. Forming a Hypothesis.
Hypothesis: Is an intelligent guess, tentative theory (explanation) for observation made. Hypothesis is a basis for further investigation (experimentation). Is based on things we know or on what we noticed during observation.
3. Experimentation and Investigation
Experimentation: Is a series of investigations intended to discover certain fact (to test hypothesis). This may either lead to the acceptance, modification or even rejection of hypothesis.
Investigation: is a systematic examination or study. It can be carried out using sense organs, instruments, reading and talking to people.
4. Observation and Data recording
Data recording: after setting up an experiment or after an investigation, a researcher makes careful observation and records all events that he considers important. e.g. mass, length, weight, temperature, pulse rate, time, volume, distance, taste, colour, sound, height, type of leaves, habitat of different organisms, magnification(microscope, hand lens)
5. Interpretation of data: is to make sense of information. Is to explain what data means in relation to the purpose of experiment.
6. Conclusion and Forming a Theory.
Conclusion: it is drawn at the end of investigation based upon collected data. The conclusion is either rejected or confirmation of hypothesis under investigation.
If the hypothesis is true it is confirmed and adopted. (a collection of related hypothesis that has been tested many times is called a theory.
If the hypothesis is false it is rejected and declared null and void.
When the hypothesis is rejected another one is formulated and tested again.
Theory: Is a set of scientific assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence but not fully proved e.g. theory of evolution.
7. Classification and Application.
Classification: is putting things into groups on the basis of their similarities like shape, colour, smell, and number of legs, eyes, wings or habitat.
Application: in science we must use what we know in a new situation. This means applying what you know or what you have found out. E.g: cholera is transmitted through contaminated food and water (this is what we found out). So we should keep our environment clean and boil drinking water. (Application of what we know or what we found out.)
BIOLOGY LABORATORY.
Laboratory:
laborare (Latin) and labour (English) meaning to work hard. So laboratory is a place for serious hard work.
Laboratory is a special room defined for biological experiments and also where specimens, models and apparatus are kept.
-It can be dangerous if safety regulations are not adhered to.
Caring for Laboratory specimens.
Biological studies often involve keeping live specimens like plants, fish, insects and small mammals.
*The alive specimens should be properly looked after and have the correct food, water and surroundings.
Laboratory Rules or safety regulations.
1. Don’t enter the laboratory without teachers’ permission.
2. Never handle any chemical, specimen or apparatus without teacher’s instruction.
3. Don’t run in the laboratory
4. Don’t throw things in the laboratory
5. Don’t eat/drink/taste anything in the laboratory
6. Listen carefully to the teachers’ instructions.
7. Clean your bench after any experiment.
8. Wash your hands after experiment
9. Report all accidents and breakage to the teacher
10. Observe the safety labels on the containers and take necessary precautions.
11. Never use broken glass vessels.
12. Never play with gas and water taps in the laboratory.
13. Wash all apparatus before and after use (always use clean apparatus).
14. Extinguish all burners and turn off water tap when you do not need them.
15. Never use laboratory apparatus for eating or drinking.
16. Keep the laboratory clean and safe.
17. Always keep inflammable substances away from flame.
Discussion on how biology laboratory differs from other school buildings.
What is in the laboratory?
-In the Biology laboratory we can find specimen and models.
-Equipments and Apparatus for carrying out biological experiments.
-Sinks and water supply.
-Gas supply and burners (Bunsen burners and spirit burners)
-Fridge for storing specimen
-Oven for drying specimens or for experiments to culture bacteria.
-It has large windows for enough supply of air and light.
Specimen: Are collected organisms or part of organisms, e.g. grasshopper, fish, snakes, plants, gills of fish, blood sample, and urine. (A specimen can be freshly picked or preserved).
Models: Are manmade structures like body organs, e.g. heart, liver, lungs, skeleton, kidneys human body, eye, ear.
Apparatus: Are different tools for doing experiments. Materials used in making apparatus are Glass and Plastic, clay, iron and wood. Glass and plastic are commonly used. Glass is expensive, can easily
break and easy to wash. Plastics are cheap but difficult to wash and cannot be used for heating chemicals.
Apparatus in the Laboratory.
Working desk, chairs, water tap, sink, electricity, gas jet connection.
Measuring instruments: for mass, length, time, and temperature e.g.: thermometer, tape measure and stopwatch.
Burners: Bunsen burner, spirit burner.
Containers: flasks (round bottom flask, flat bottom), test tubes, beakers.
Pick up instruments: spatula, pipettes, syringes, spoons, droppers, forceps, test tube holder, test tube rack.
Dissection instruments: knife, scalpel, scissors, pins, mounted needle, scalpel blades.
Magnifying instruments: lens, microscope, and slides.
Cleaning instruments: brushes (test tube brush), steel wire, sisal fibre, cloth, soap, disinfectants.
Chemicals: iodine, glucose, sucrose, starch, million’s reagent, sucrose, Benedict solution, Sudan III dye, enzymes, distilled water, acids (HCL, H2SO4) and Base (NaOH and KOH).
Preserving solutions: Formalin (Formaldehyde). for preserving specimens.
Indicators: litmus( blue/red).
Safety equipments: fire extinguisher, safety blanket, first aid kit, goggles(eye protection), plastic gloves.
Other equipments: petri dish, delivery tube, cover slips, motar & pestle, an apron.
Chemical symbols/signs in the laboratory (warning signs).
Chemicals used in the school laboratory are note completely safe. One should be sure of what type of chemical and of what to do with it before picking it. All chemicals which are not correctly labelled, should be thrown away, i.e. they should be properly disposed.
1. Toxic
These are poisonous substances which can cause death. They can enter a body through skin, eyes, nose or mouth. Be very careful in handling them. In case of any contact wash out with a lot of water.
2. Corrosive
These can burn one’s skin; corrode the floor, wood, destroy metals, can cause blindness in case of eye contact In case of contact wash with a lot of water. e.g.: concentrated acids like sulphuric acid, HCl, nitric acid; and concentrated alkalis like sodium Hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide.
3. Flammable
These are substances which can catch fire easily. They should never be brought near an open flame. Their containers should be covered.
4. Oxidant
These are substances which accelerate burning i.e.: small fire can be a great fire and may cause an explosion. E.g. heating potassium permanganate mixed with saw dust.
5. Explosive
Explosion is a forceful rapid reaction which involves throwing off of particles at high speed. Handle such chemicals with much care as instructed.
6. Harmful or irritant
Harmful substances may cause illness; may not kill immediately but may have effect after long exposure. Should be handled according to safety instructions. Irritant can cause slight discomfort in the body.
7. Radioactive
Radioactive substances give off harmful radiation which can cause damage to living tissues.
FIRST AID
First aid is the immediate and temporary care or help administered to an injured or an ill person before being taken to hospital or before the doctor comes.
Everyone should be familiar with the medical components found in the first aid kit and how to use them, because a very simple intelligent act may save a person’s life while detailed and ill-informed interference may make illness or injury worse.
Importance of First Aid.
1. Saves life
2. Reduces pain
3. Brings hope and encouragement
4. Prevents further accidents, bleeding or injuries.
5. Removes fear of death.
6. Helps the patient to recover from shock.
First Aid Kit or Box.
Is a small box or bag in which medical components for emergency treatment are put. It is placed in a safe and accessible place.
Components of the First Aid Kit and their use.
1. A pair of scissors, sharp knife, new sterilized razor blades, tweezers and needles; used for cutting bandages strings or cutting flaps of skin while cleaning the wound.
2. Assorted bandages for tying around a part that has been injured in order to protect or support it.
3. Sterilized cotton wool used for cleaning the skin or the wound.
4. Sterilized gauze used to cover wound and prevent it from dirt but also allow enough air.
5. Splints used to support broken bones and is tied using bandages.
6. Elastic bandages used on injured joints or dislocation.
7. Plaster band used to stick on the skin to protect a wound from dirt. It also minimizes bleeding.
8. Safety pins used for holding pieces of bandages or cloth together.
9. Methylated spirit used for cleaning wounds and surgical instruments like tongs, tweezers, and scissors.
10. Liniment can be used to reduce muscle pains.
11. Iodine solution used on fresh wounds.
12. Gentian Violet solution (GV) applied on wounds
13. Antiseptics like, Antibiotic solution for killing microorganism like bacteria.
14. Pain killers like panadol and aspirin used to reduce pain.
15. Pair of tongs used for picking up and holding things when cleaning wounds.
16. Clinical thermometer for measuring temperature of a sick person.
17. Jar of petroleum jelly for applying on cuts, scrapes, bruises and small wounds.
18. Soap used for cleaning wound and hands during first aid.
19. Clean Water used for taking painkillers, cleaning wounds and also for washing hands during first aid.
20. Travel wipes for cleaning hands and wounds in case you don’t have water.
First Aid is given to the victims of:-
1. Snake bites and stings from arthropod (like scorpion, spider, bees, and wasps) and certain hairy caterpillars.
2. Shock.
3. Fainting.
4. Excessive vomiting.
5. Strains, cramps and sprains of muscles.
6. Bone fractures and dislocations.
7. Excessive bleeding, ie. From wound or nose bleeding.
8. Poisoning.
9. Choking.
10. Drowning.
11. Dog bite.
12. Burns.
Safety precautions when giving First Aid.
Body substance isolation, these are equipments and procedures that protect you from the blood and body fluids of the patient. These include protective gloves, eye protection, mask and gown.
Snake bites.
1. Types of snakes:
Non-poisonous snakes include African green snake and African beauty snake. These are of no danger to people. They rarely bite people, if they do they have no poisonous fangs and they have no fang marks.
Poisonous snake have fangs which are hollow like injection needles. They sink their fangs into the victim and inject Venom (snake poison) through them. In many cases the amount of poison is small and of no danger to life. 95% of persons survive snake bites even without antivenin.
Types of snake bite poisoning
Local poisoning causes pain and swelling around the bite and no general poisoning of the whole body and therefore no danger to life.
General poisoning affects the whole body. This occurs within half an hour or several days.
Cobra, the venom causes increasing weakness, difficulty to open eyelids and swallowing, eventually paralysis.
Viper, the venom causes bleeding from the gums and fang marks with much pain and swelling around the bitten part.
Treatment of snake bites
-Calm and reassure the casualty and lay them down.
-Stay quite and do not move the bitten part. The more it is moved the faster the poison will spread in the body.
-Tie or wrap a wide elastic bandage or clean cloth around the limb above the bite to stop the spread of venom in the blood stream.
-Using sterilized razor cut and open the bitten area to make it bleed.
-Using your mouth suck the blood from the bite and spit it out.
-Wash the wound with soap and water to remove the venom.
-If breathing stops start mouth to mouth respiration/ventilation.
-Never drink alcohol after snake bite because it will increase heart rate and make poison to spread rapidly to bloodstream.
-Take the person immediately to hospital on a stretcher if possible. If possible carry the snake with you, this will help the doctor to know which anti-snakebite serum to give.
2. Insect bites and sting.
Insect bites are very painful but not dangerous except occasionally to children. Some biting insects transmit diseases like malaria (mosquito anopheles) and sleeping sickness (tsetse fly). A person bitten by such insects should seek immediate medical help.
-Spider bites: some spiders like black widow can cause extreme pain in stomach muscles.
-Scorpion, bee or wasp sting are very painful.
-Certain hairy caterpillars cause pain and local rashes.
Treatment.
-Take antihistamine tablets or painkillers (asprin or panadol).
-In case of bee the sting will remain, so remove it by pressing hollow ring around it.
-Put ice on the stung part.
-Wash the area with weak solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking powder).
-Antihistamine cream or ointment may be applied to the wound.
-Some people may have severe allergic reaction like breathing difficulties, severe swelling of tongue or dizziness. In such cases get immediate medical help.
3. Poisoning from swallowing.
Many children die from swallowing poisonous substances. A common poison in Tanzania is kerosene often used as fuel. To prevent these we should adhere to:-
-Put all poisonous substances out of reach of children.
-Poisonous substances like rat poison, pesticides, medicine, detergents, disinfectant, alcohol, kerosene or petrol should not be put in the soft drink bottles.
Treatment
*For kerosene, petrol, strong acids, corrosive substance (lye) or gasoline:
-Do not make a person to vomit, but give him/her plenty of water or milk to drink.
-Acids can be neutralized by giving alkalis like water with magnesium, baking soda.
-If the poison is alkaline it can be neutralized by giving weak acids like lemon juice, orange juice or diluted vinegar.
-Make the person vomit until the vomit is clear. Vomiting can be forced by putting fingers into the throat or giving water with soap and water to drink.
-Give a drink of powdered charcoal.
-Give plenty of milk, beaten egg or flour mixed with water.
4. Excessive Bleeding from a wound
The principle of controlling blood loss is to restrict the blood flow to the wound and therefore encourage clotting. This can be done:
-By elevation of the injured part if it is the limb or hand.
-By applying pressure, i.e. Direct or indirect pressure.
*Direct pressure is applied to the wound. This flattens the blood vessels in the area and helps to slow the blood flow. It can be by using ones hand or a clean piece of cloth.
*Indirect pressure is applying pressure to the artery that supplies blood to the affected area. This is applied only in case of severe bleeding and should be applied for no longer than 10 minutes.
*If the bleeding can not be controlled by pressure and elevation, tie a wide piece of folded cloth or a belt tightly around the area above the wounded part. Loosen the tie after every hour
to test whether the bleeding has stopped and to allow blood to circulate. Take the casualty to hospital.
5. Nose Bleeding.
-Sit the patient quietly with their head tipped forward.
-Blow the nose gently to remove mucus and blood.
-Get them to pinch their nose for 10 minutes and breathe through the mouth.
-Advise the patient not to talk, swallow or sniff.
-If the bleeding has not stopped after 10 minutes, repeat the process.
-If that does not help, plug wet cotton in to the nose but leave a good part outside that it can be easy to remove the plug.
-If a person bleeds frequently, smear a little Vaseline inside the nose twice a day or sniff lightly salted water.
*Eating fruits like oranges, tomatoes, papaws and others is the best way to prevent nose bleeding.
6. Shock.
Shock is a sudden violent disturbance of the mind or emotions.
Causes of shock.
Bad news
A frightening traumatic event
Severe illness
Dehydration
Severe allergic reaction
Heavy bleeding inside the body
Large burn
Loss of blood.
Electric shock
Signs of shock.
Weak, rapid pulse (over 100 per minute)
Cold sweat, pale, cold damp skin.
Mental confusion, weakness or loss of consciousness.
Blood pressure drops dangerously.
Treatment of shock
Lie him down with his feet higher than his head. If he has head injury put him in a half sitting position.
Keep calm and reassure the person.
Loose any tight cloth
Stop any bleeding.
If he feels cold, keep him warm by covering him with a blanket.
Apply mouth to mouth respiration/ventilation if necessary.
If he is conscious give him water or any soft drink.
If he looks dehydrated, give a lot of liquid and redehydration drink.
Treat wound if any.
If he fells pain, give him painkillers but one without sedative.
Electric shock
Signs of Electric shock includes redness, swelling, scorching or charring of the skin, unconsciousness, stoppage of breathing.
How to help in electric shock.
Turn off the electricity immediately.
If this is not possible, use dry wooden pole to remove the casualty away.
NB. Be very careful to avoid contact with the electric current.
Apply mouth to mouth respiration/ventilation if necessary.
If the casualty has visible burns hold under cold running water for 10 minutes. Then apply sterile dressing.
Do not apply lotion, fat or ointment.
Do not break the blisters or remove any loose skin.
*If the person complains of thirst, moisten the lips with water but do not give anything to drink.
***Then follow the procedures of treating shock above.
7. Fainting
It is caused by sudden fall in blood pressure, which results, from inadequate blood supply to the brain. The brain cells lack oxygen hence the victim collapses.
Causes of fainting
Bad news, eg. death of loved ones
Unpleasant sights, eg. snake
Shock
Illness
Excessive bleeding.
Treatment.
Loosen the cloth, belt, shoes wristwatch and pants.
Lay him/her down with the head lower than the feet.
Let him/her have plenty of air, ie. Fan him/her.
If the person is not breathing, Artificial respiration (Resuscitation) or mouth to mouth respiration must be started at once.
If situation does not improve seek medical help.
8. Vomiting.
Vomiting is involuntary ejection of substances from the stomach through the mouth.
Treatment.
Clear the mouth immediately.
Lay the patient on his chest with head low, tilted back and to one side.
Give nothing by mouth except ice chips or repeated sips of cold, carbonated beverage.
If vomiting continuous give a redehydration drink (solution of 1 teaspoon of salt, 8 teaspoons of sugar and 1 litter of water)
Allow the patient to have complete rest.
If vomiting persists, take him/her to hospital, drugs like Promethazine Hydrochloride syrup may be given.
9. Hiccups
Hiccups are caused by an involuntary contraction of the respiratory muscles, giving a characteristic sound. May be due to swallowing of air.
Treatment.
In children, a teaspoonful of a weak solution of sodium bicarbonate or lemon juice.
Application of ice on the back of the neck.
Holding the breath for as long as possible
Swallowing finely crushed ice.
Pressing on the eyeballs not too hard.
Drinking a glass of water upside down or while holding a pencil crossways between the teeth.
Pulling on the tongue
Breathing with paper bag held over your mouth.
10. Muscle sprains and cramps
Muscle cramps are the result of a muscle going into uncontrolled spam and contraction causing severe pain and restriction or loss of movement.
This can be due to lactic acid during vigorous activities or lack of salts in the body.
Treatment
Keep the sprained part raised high.
Put ice wrapped in a cloth.
Massage the cramped muscle gently and apply some ointment like Deep heat or Volin.
11. Bone Fracture (broken bone)
Fracture is a broken bone usually with an odd shape and painful swelling. If the bones are far out of position and the break is recent, you can straighten them before putting on a cast. Never force setting of bones.
Keep the broken bone in a fixed position by using a splint, strips of bark or sleeve of cardboard.
In case of broken neck or back should not be moved by inexperienced helpers.
At the health centre they will put POP.
12. Dislocation
These are bones that have come out of place at a joint.
Try to put the bone back into its place.
Keeping it bandaged firmly in place so that it does not slip out again.
Avoid forceful use of the limb long enough for the joint to heal completely.
13. Choking
Is when something like food stuck in the throat, and the person fails to breath.
Treatment
Stand behind the person and wrap your arms around his waist.
Put your fist against his belly above the nave and below the ribs.
Press into his/her belly with a sudden strong upward jerk.
Repeat if necessary.
If person is bigger than you or unconscious:
Lay him on his back.
Sit over him/her with the heel of your lower hand on his belly between his navel ad ribs.
Make a quick strong upward push.
Repeat several times if necessary.
If still he cannot breath try mouth to mouth respiration.
14. Drowning
A person who has stopped breathing has only 4 minutes to live. Quick action to save life must be taken.
Start mouth to mouth at once before he is out of water.
When you reach the shore, quickly put his head lower than the feet. While still doing mouth to mouth, push his belly with an upward push to remove water out of the body.
15. Wounds (Cuts, scrapes or abrasion and small wounds)
Wash your hands with clean boiled water and soap.
Wash the abrasion or wound gently with soap and clean boiled water and dry it.
Add GV (Gentian Violet solution to keep it clean and dry quickly.
Do not close the wound.
Ensure that the person is given tetanus injection.
Deep and dirty wound
Wash your hands with soap and clean water.
Wash the wound with clean cold water; be careful to clean all the dirt.
Lift up and clean under any flaps of skin.
Put clean gauze to cover the wound. Change the gauze every day.
Take the person to the hospital for further medication and tetanus injection.
*Never put animal dung or human faeces or mud on the wound, these may cause dangerous infections like tetanus.
16. Burns
Types of burns
*1st degree burns are minor burns that do not form blisters. Put the burned part in cold water at once and take painkillers.
*2nd degree burns are burns that form blisters. Never break the blisters. If broken wash gently with soap and cold boiled water. Leave the burn uncovered and allow it to dry. Apply GV to keep it clean and speed up to dry. Covering the burn with honey helps heeling. If the burn is near moving joint, sterilize a little Vaseline by heating it until it boils and spread it on a piece of sterile gauze. When it is cool put the gauze on the burn.
*3rd degree burns are burns that destroy skin and expose raw or charred flesh and they cover large areas. Take the person to the hospital meanwhile wrap the burnt part with a very clean cloth or towel. Treat as 2nd degree burn.
17. Emergencies caused by heat.
Heat cramps occurs as a result of depletion of salt in the body when working in hot weather. Sometimes a person sweats a lot and gets painful cramps in the legs, arms or stomach.
Treatment: Have the person in a cool place and gently massage the painful areas. Put a teaspoonful of salt in a litre of boiled cold water, stir and drink.
Heat exhaustion, a person who works and sweats a lot in hot weather may become very pale, weak and feel faint. The skin is cool and moist. The pulse is rapid and weak.
Treatment: Have a person lie down in a cool place. Raise his feet and rub his legs. Give salt solution to drink.
Heat stroke, Occurs in old people or alcoholics during hot weather. The skin is very hot and dry. Not even the armpits are moist. High fever up to 42 0C. Person is often unconscious.
Treatment: Put him in the shade. Soak him with cold water or ice water and fan him. Continue until the fever drops. Then seek medical help.
SAFETY IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
Environment is the surroundings in which we live. It includes living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components like land, water and air in which people, animals, plants and other organisms live, e.g. home, school, and national parks.
Safety is the state of being protected from danger, harm or accidents.
Accident is an unpleasant event that happens unexpectedly and causes injuries or death to people or animals and damage to property.
Common accidents at home and school.
1. Burning accidents. (Fire, gas, oil-flammable things) fire outbreaks.
2. Poisoning (chemicals or overdose or wrong dosage of medicines)
3. Snake or insect bite (poisonous types)
4. Bone fracture and dislocation. (falls, fighting, accidents, hit by objects)
5. Getting hurt by sharp objects (pieces of broken bottles or knife or sharp finger nails)
6. Electric shock.
7. Drowning (swimming pool, wells or streams)
8. Eye injuries, e.g. dust, sand or smoke.
9. Choking caused by food and drinks or swallowing foreign objects.
10. Items stuck in nostril (stones or seeds)
11. A pulled elbow.
12. Foreign body in the ear
13. Nose bleeding
14. Suffocation due to inadequate fresh air, e.g. in mines or hide and seek games.
Ways of preventing accidents at home and school.
1. Children must be protected from fall, burns, poisoning and electric shock and educate early about it.
2. Things that may cause accident should be locked at a place in accessible to children, eg: kerosene, fire, medicines, chemicals and sharp objects like knife.
3. People should learn road rules and traffic signs.
4. Extinguish all glowing residues before disposal.
5. Use the right fuel for the right burners eg: do not use petrol for kerosene burner.
6. Cool a burner completely before you refill it with a liquid fuel.
7. Electric circuits should be used as per instructions.
8. Avoid spraying inflammable near burners, e.g. insecticides or some perfumes.
9. All medicines should be kept in a safe place away from children’s reach.
10. All medicine should be used properly, ie. follow doctors prescriptions.
11. Avoid poorly prepared food.
12. Wastes should be well and properly handled. All sharp objects should be disposed safely.
13. Never keep kerosene, petrol or poisonous substances in a soft drink bottle.
14. Adhering to laboratory rules and regulations.
15. Wearing overalls, gloves and masks when performing experiment.
16. Mopping immediately the water spilt on the floor to avoid slipping.
17. Clearing bushes around the house which can harbour snakes and other insects.
18. Wash hands after handling chemicals.
19. Cover water stored in containers at home.
Ways of maintaining safety and peace at home.
1. Toxic materials and other substances should be kept neatly at a safe place.
2. Smoking, drinking alcohols and other risk behaviours should be avoided.
3. Furniture and cooking utensils have to be well arranged.
4. Food has to be well prepared, served and preserved.
5. Decision-making should involve the majority.
6. Assertive (confident) behaviour is essential, i.e. being honest and obedient.
7. Each member in the family should fulfil his/her responsibilities.
WASTE DISPOSAL.
Everyday people have something they need to get rid of. These unwanted materials we call them waste. Good waste management requires the effective storage, collection, transfer, recycling and final disposal of the waste.
Waste is unwanted, worthless or rejected materials e.g.: materials without use. Waste includes packaging containers, nuclear materials, poisonous industrial waste and sewage.
Waste disposal: Is the ways of eliminating or removing waste from the environment.
Why dispose waste: So that our environment will remain clean, beautiful and safe. We dispose waste in a manner that public interest is not being impaired.
Where waste comes from? 3. Dumping rubbish on top of the ground in a specific place.
4. Burying the rubbish in a hole or pit.
5. Recovery: changing waste materials into other categories, e.g. cow dung into biogas.
6. Recycling: using waste to manufacture new materials, e.g. paper, plastic bags.
7. Reduction at use: Reducing waste production, e.g. by buying more durable, less toxic and less packaging products.
8. Safe waste disposal: safe disposal site with adequate control, production of less waste and recycling.
9. Working hand in hand with environmental groups, e.g. educating people on proper ways and their importance.
10. Garden and kitchen organic wastes can be used for making compost manure or feeding animals.
1. Construction wastes, e.g. wood, metals, bricks, roofing materials, glass etc.
2. Agricultural wastes, e.g. Herbicides, insecticides, empty containers (bags)
3. Industrial wastes, e.g.: waste water, sludge, metals, and smoke.
4. House wastes, e.g. leftovers, vegetable peelings, sewage, containers, papers, plastic bags, old clothes and old shoes.
Types of waste.
Waste can be differentiated according to their physical, chemical or biological characteristics. For our case we see types of waste basing on their physical state.
1. Solid waste: materials that contain less than 70% of water (less than 25% water). e.g. household garbage, residue solids from industries, mining waste, oilfield cuttings such as drill cuttings.
2. Liquid waste: Wastewater contains less than 1% solid, e.g. urine, wastewater, used chemicals and liquid industrial waste. It may contain high concentration of dissolved salts and metals.
3. Sludge: Materials between liquid and solids 3%-25% solids while the rest is water dissolved materials.
4. Gaseous waste: Include carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides, carbon monoxides, nitrogen dioxides and fluoride gas. .
PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS.
GOOD MANNERS:
Good manners: Is a way of behaving that is considered acceptable in your family, community, culture or country. Assertive behaviour is a good source of good manners.
Examples of good manners:
1. Respect: Mutual respect in the community e.g.: children, parents, teachers, social workers. (Respect yourself and others, i.e. being mindful of others)
2. Loving all people by considering them as equal.
3. Tidiness; look smart always and everywhere e.g.: brush shoes, wear clean and ironed clothes, keep the bedroom neat.
4. Discipline: obey established rules and regulations of the society, institution or school. Greet each other especially elders and help them.
5. Good eating habits: Avoid talking with food in the mouth, keep your mouth closed whilst chewing, proper time and place of eating, do not pile food in your plate, do not lean across the table to reach the food but ask for it, do not criticise the food but compliment it, use serving spoons for serving food not your hands or spoon you eat with, avoid embarrassing topics that may annoy or disturb others at the table.
6. Good posture: sitting properly in classroom and homes, walking appropriately.
7. Responsible hard working individual.
8. Avoid risk behaviours: eg; prostitution, alcoholism, and smoking, local circumcision, female genital mutilation.
9. Everything in order: all objects in the room or house or surroundings should be put in the right place. Anything that is not in the right place is a litter (rubbish).
10. Proper dressing: avoid tight and short dressing which are against our African culture.
11. Use of fundamental phrases like: Thank you, No thank you, I beg your pardon, Excuse me please, May I…. etc.
HYGIENE:
Hygiene: Is the maintenance of healthful practices particular reference to cleanliness. That is personal hygiene and environmental hygiene.
Personal Hygiene: Is keeping oneself and things around him or her clean. High standard of cleanliness is essential to protect diseases and other infections.
Principles of personal Hygiene.
1. Bathing: Take bath at least twice a day and oil your body properly. The body should be well cleaned to avoid diseases.
2. Hairs: Keep your hair short and comb.
3. Hands: Keep your nails short and clean. Wash hands before and after eating, after visiting toilets or after contact with animals.
4. Oral hygiene: Brush your teeth after and before bed, after each meal. Do not share toothbrush. Avoid sugar and sweet as they cause dental caries.
5. Nasal hygiene: Nose blowing using tissue paper or a piece of cloth, holding hand infront of the mouth when sneezing or coughing.
6. Clothes: wear clean and ironed clothes. Change underwear daily. Avoid sharing clothes like underwear, T-shirts or socks. Change bedding regularly.
7. Shoes; Wear clean shoes. Change socks daily. Brush your shoes.
8. Physical exercises; help us to live longer and better.
9. Food; Eat balance diet.
10. Avoid pre marital sex: If any use condoms to avoid STD’s, AIDS and unwanted pregnancies.
Environmental cleanliness (hygiene)
Is the proper environmental sanitation, this includes:-
-Clean your surroundings-cutting grass short and sweeping.
-Remove all stagnant water near home because it is a breeding place for insects like mosquitoes.
-Use the toilet in a proper way and keep it clean.
-Prepare your meals in a hygiene way and clean your utensils properly. (Keep your kitchen clean and in good order)
-All rubbish and litter should be properly disposed.
-Avoid pollutants.
Things required in personal hygiene.
1. Soap to wash our bodies and clothes.
2. Shampoo to wash our hairs.
3. Tooth paste to kill germs and clean our teeth.
4. Petroleum jelly: To make the skin healthy, soft and protected.
5. Deodorant: to decrease odour and sweat production.
6. Water for general cleanliness of our bodies, clothes utensils and surroundings ie mopping.
7. Tooth brush to brush our teeth.
8. Nail cutter (razor blade) to cut our nails.
9. Shaving machine for shaving our hairs.
10. Towel: to dry our bodies.
11. Toilet paper: to wipe out wastes.
12. Iron to kill germs.
13. Perfumes: to remove odour and refreshing the body.
Importance of personal hygiene and good manners.
1. To maintain health, i.e. protection from diseases like cholera.
2. Improve personal appearance.
3. Increase social acceptance in the society, i.e. loved and respected.
4. Reduce the chances of malnourishment, e.g. obesity.
5. Maintain natural body stature.
6. Person will attain development by being responsible and hard working.
7. Help to avoid risk behaviour.
8. Avoid breaking laws, rules, regulations and guidelines.
9. People will like you
10. People will learn from you.
11. You will be accepted in the society.
12. You are more likely to be given a good position with the community.
13. People will be more willing to help you if you have a problem.
PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE
Puberty: is the beginning of adolescence. In girls it start at the age of 9 up to 15 and in boys 11 up to 17. Person is able to reproduce.
Adolescence: is the period of physical development from childhood to adulthood. Is the period when secondary sexual characteristics develop. During this time there are physical and psychological changes that occur. Girls and boys get excited and attracted to the opposite sex.
Secondary sexual characteristics.
These are physical changes that develop during puberty and they distinguish adults from children.
Male secondary sexual characteristics.
1. Voice become deep and heavy.
2. Production of sperms start.
3. Hairs develop on chin, armpits and pubic areas.
4. Development of muscular body and wider shoulders and chest.
5. Rapid increase in height and growth.
6. Pimples may appear on the face but later on disappear.
7. Increase of sexual urge and sexual relationships.
8. Production of sex hormone, i.e. testosterone.
9. Get wet dreams
10. Enlargement of reproductive organs, e.g. testes and penis.
Female secondary sexual characteristics.
1. Broadening of hips and enlargement of breasts.
2. Soft and high pitched voice.
3. Pimples may appear on the face and disappear later on.
4. Monthly discharge of blood through the vagina (menstruation)
5. Hairs grow in pubic region and armpits.
6. Enlargement of reproductive organs, i.e. ovaries, vagina (vulva), uterus and pelvic.
7. Body becomes smooth due to deposition of fat especially on the buttocks.
8. Increase of sexual urge and sexual relations with opposite sex.
9. Growth rate increases faster than boys.
10. Production of sex hormones, e.g. oestrogen and progesterone.
Personal hygiene during puberty.
Due to these changes in their bodies, boys and girls should know what is happening to their bodies.
1. To be educated on such changes to promote health and self-confidence.
2. To have self control: ability to say NO to pre marital sex.
3. Genital organs should be kept clean to prevent diseases.
4. Take bath daily and wear clean clothes (especially underwears) to avoid body odour.
5. Pubic hairs be tremmed to prevent it from collecting germs.
6. Boys: wash bed clothing soiled during wet dreams.
7. Girls i. Use clean and good quality sanitary towel during menstruation.
ii. Change the pads (tampon) at least 3 times a day and change underwears.
iii. Wash soiled clothes as soon as possible.
iv. Wash hands after handling soiled pads.
8. Wash under wears daily.
HEALTH AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES.
DEFINATION OF HEALTH.
Health is a state of physical, mental and emotional well being, i.e. Being free from diseases. This is the result of a steady state in the internal environment of the body. Disturbance and interference of this steady state may cause ill health characterized by body disorders.
Mental Health includes proper reasoning and rational thinking, i.e. think and act sensibly.
Emotional Health includes proper social interaction and respect for each other.
Physical Health includes proper physiological and anatomic functioning of the body.
Social Health is the ability to interact with other human beings and the surrounding environments happily and confidently. Is to live according to the accepted norms and values of the society, i.e. playing together, making friends, helping each other, etc.
Socially unaccepted behaviours are like, prostitution, stealing and homosexuality.
IMMUNITY.
This is the ability of the body to resist against diseases. The most known defender is the white blood cells.
-When pathogens enter the body, the phagocytes cells will engulf and digest them.
-Lymphocytes cells defend the body against invading pathogens. Pathogens produce antigens and the lymphocytes will produce specific antibodies to act against the antigen, hence making pathogens harmless and easier to destroy.
Types of immunity:
Basically there two main types of immunity namely:
(a) Natural immunity,
(b) Artificial immunity.
1. Natural immunity
This is also referred as innate, that which an individual is born with. Natural immunity is divided into two:
-Natural active immunity. The body makes its own antibodies especially after an attack from disease causing microorganism. Adults have this kind of immunity.
-Natural passive immunity. The body develops an immune system during development of foetus (unborn Baby) i.e. the antibodies from the mother pass to the foetus. After the baby is born the antibodies from the mother pass to the baby through sucking of the first milk (colostrums). This lasts only for a few months after birth.
2. Artificial immunity
This is the type of immunity, an individual acquires in the course of life time. This type of immunity is also referred to as acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is of two types:
-Artificial active immunity. This is the type of immunity established by infecting a small quantity of antigens into the body. This is known as vaccination. The antigens induce the production of antibodies.
-Artificial passive immunity. This type of immunity is acquired when an individual receives antibodies produced by other individual organism. Serum which contains antibodies is introduced into the body of an individual organism.
Factors that can lead to lowering of body immunity.
1) Destruction of immune system by pathogens for instances HIV
2) Lack of a proper balanced diet.
3) Inhibitory effect of (immunosuppressive) drugs and chemicals to the white blood cells.
4) Inability of the body to produce antibodies and the white blood cells. Lack of vaccination/immunization
